An intelligence operation led to the repatriation to Israel of an extremely rare document from the First Temple-period

There are only three papyri from this period in the Collections of the Israel National Treasures

In a joint intelligence operation, the Antiquities Theft Prevention Unit of the Israel Antiquities Authority and Professor Shmuel Ahituv, recipient of the Israel Prize for Biblical Studies, with the help of the Ministry of Culture and Sport and the Ministry of Jerusalem and Heritage succeeded in repatriating a First Temple-period document dated to the late seventh or early sixth century BCE. The paper is written in ancient Hebrew script on papyrus, and it was probably found in the Judean Desert caves.  

The extremely rare document is composed of four torn lines that begin with the words “To Ishmael send….”, the text hinting that it is a fragment of a letter containing instructions to the recipient. Based on the writing, it is proposed to date the ‘Ishmael Papyrus’ to the seventh to sixth centuries BCE, joining only two other documents from this period in the Israel Antiquities Authority Dead Sea Scrolls collection. All three papyri come from the Judean Desert, where the dry climate enables the preservation of the papyri.

The story began when Dr. Ada Yardeni, a scholar of Ancient Hebrew Script, passed away in June 2018, and Prof. Shmuel Ahituv was asked to complete the publication of a document she was working on. Ahituv was surprised to encounter the photograph of a rare and, until then, unknown document from the First Temple period, together with Yardeni’s preliminary decipherment. This led to a joint campaign by Ahituv and the Antiquities Theft Prevention Unit of the Israel Antiquities Authority to locate the whereabouts of the original document.

The intelligence mission succeeded, and the person who owned the papyrus, a resident of Montana, USA, was located. He explained that the papyrus was given to his mother when she visited Jerusalem in 1965 by Joseph Sa‘ad, Curator of the Rockefeller Museum, and Halil Iskander Kandu, a well-known antiquities dealer from Bethlehem, who many years ago sold thousands of Dead Sea scroll fragments. Back home, his mother hung the framed scroll fragment on the wall.

To persuade the owner to transfer the fragile document to Israel, where it would be conserved in climate-controlled conditions, he was invited to visit the Israel Antiquities Authority Judean Desert Scroll Department’s Conservation Laboratory in Jerusalem. After the visit, the owner was convinced that there were the best conditions to conserve and research the rare document, and he generously gave it to the Israel Antiquities Authority.

The Dead Sea Scrolls Unit conserved the papyrus and documented it with the modern multispectral system used to monitor the state of the scrolls. A small sample was radiometrically dated in the Weizmann Institute in Rehovot to confirm that the document was genuine. The sample provided a date similar to that determined by the paleographic evaluation (based on the letter forms), thus consolidating the dating towards the end of the First Temple period.

According to Professor Shmuel Ahituv, “The name Ishmael mentioned in the document was a common name in the Biblical period, meaning ‘God will hear.’ It first appears in the Bible as the name of the son of Abraham and Hagar, and it is subsequently the personal name of several individuals in the Bible, including Yishmael ben Netanyahu, who murdered the governor Gedaliah ben Ahikam. It also appears as the name of officials on paleographic finds such as bullae (clay stamp seals) used for sealing royal documents in the administration of the Kingdom of Judah, for example, the bulla reading, ‘To Yishmael, son of the king.’ The present document probably certified a dispatched either to or from Yishmael.”

“Towards the end of the First Temple period, writing was widespread,” says Dr. Joe Uziel, Director of the Israel Antiquities Authority Judean Desert Scrolls Unit. “This is evident from many finds, including groups of ostraca (documents written on pottery sherds) and stamp seals with writing, that have been discovered in many ancient urban settlements, including in the royal capital of Jerusalem. However, First Temple-period documents written on organic materials—such as this papyrus—have scarcely survived. While we have thousands of scroll fragments dating from the Second Temple period, we have only three documents, including this newly found one, from the First Temple period. Each new document sheds further light on the literacy and the administration of the First Temple period.”

According to Dr. Eitan Klein, deputy director of the Antiquities Theft Prevention Unit of the Israel Antiquities Authority, “Returning this document to Israel is part of ongoing efforts undertaken by the Antiquities Theft Prevention Unit of the Israel Antiquities Authority to protect and preserve the cultural heritage of the State of Israel, a heritage that belongs to all its citizens, playing a role in the story of the historical heritage of the country and its inhabitants over the centuries. The legal and worthy place for this artifact is in the Israel Antiquities Authority Dead Sea Scrolls Unit. We are trying to retrieve additional fragmentary scrolls abroad and bring them to Israel.”

Hili Tropper, Minister of Culture and Sport: The Israel Antiquities Authority, together with the Ministry of Culture and Sport and the Ministry of Jerusalem and Heritage, is initiating the discovery of impressive antiquities and continues to surprise us with their success in locating lost archaeological treasures. The Antiquities Theft Prevention Unit of the Israel Antiquities Authority acts vigorously to uproot the phenomenon of antiquity looting, to allow all to appreciate the national heritage and to deepen our roots.”

Zeev Elkin, Minister of Construction and Housing, and Minister of Jerusalem Affairs and Heritage: “This important discovery joins an impressive array of archaeological discoveries exposed in recent years in the Judean Desert area. Since I was appointed Minister of Jerusalem and Heritage a year and a half ago, the office has allocated about 4 million shekels to the Antiquities Theft Prevention Unit, has initiated the survey of the Judean Desert together with the Israel Antiquities Authority, and has set up an inter-ministerial committee to deal with the destruction of heritage sites in Judea and Samaria. We are taking continuous action and investing millions of shekels in developing, preserving, and saving heritage sites throughout the country. We will continue to strengthen the bond between the public and the national heritage of the Jewish people, as it is coming to light in the desert caves, in the Golan, and throughout Israel.”

According to Eli Escusido, Director of the Israel Antiquities Authority, “Repatriating this rare document is part of an extensive process led by the Israel Antiquities Authority, aiming, on the one hand, to prevent the illegal sale of the ancient scrolls that were plundered from the Judean Desert in the past, and on the other hand, to prevent further plundering of the cultural heritage finds extant in the desert today. In this context, the Israel Antiquities Authority initiated the Judean Desert Survey, which reestablished Israeli control of the area, spread a blanket of legal enforcement, and propagated research activity on the items of cultural heritage found in the Judean Desert caves.”

A Rare and Prestigious Collection of Decorated Ivories from the First Temple Period Found in the City of David

“The king also made a large throne of ivory, and he overlaid it with refined gold” (1 Kings 10:18) 

These fine items were inlaid in a couch-throne placed in a palatial structure. The discovery, unearthed in excavations by the Israel Antiquities Authority and Tel Aviv University in the Givati Parking Lot in the City of David in the Jerusalem Walls National Park, sheds new light on the power and importance of Jerusalem at the time of the Judahite Kingdom.

An extraordinary discovery was unearthed in Jerusalem: an assemblage of ivory plaques from the First Temple period, among the few found anywhere in the world and the first of their kind to be found in Jerusalem. They came to light in the Israel Antiquities Authority and Tel Aviv University excavations at the Givati Parking Lot in the City of David in the Jerusalem Walls National Park; the excavations are funded by the City of David Foundation. The ivories considered one of the costliest raw materials in the ancient world – even more than gold – were found among the ruins of a palatial building in use when Jerusalem was at the height of its power (the eighth and seventh centuries BCE). Scholars believe that the decorated ivories were inlaid in wooden furnishings that were used by the residents of the building – people of means, influence, and power, possibly high government officials or priests. The ivories will be displayed next Tuesday, September 13th, at the 23rd Conference of the City of David Studies of Ancient Jerusalem. They will also be displayed in October at the Jerusalem Conference of the Israel Antiquities Authority, Tel Aviv University, and the Hebrew University.

According to the excavation directors, Prof. Yuval Gadot of Tel Aviv University’s Department of Archaeology and Near Eastern Cultures and Dr. Yiftah Shalev of the Israel Antiquities Authority: “To date, we only knew of decorated ivories from the capitals of the great kingdoms in the First Temple period, such as Nimrud, the capital of Assyria, or Samaria, the capital of the Israelite Kingdom. Now, for the first time, Jerusalem joins these capitals. We were already aware of Jerusalem’s importance and centrality in the region during the First Temple period. Still, the new finds illustrate how important it was and places it in the same league as the capitals of Assyria and Israel. The discovery of the ivories is a step forward in understanding the political and economic status of the city as part of global administration and economy.”

Ivory is mentioned only a few times in the Bible, always in connection with royalty or great wealth – the description of the throne of King Solomon (I Kings 10:18); an ivory palace built by King Ahab in Samaria (1 Kings 22:39);  and the prophet Amos’ castigation of Israelite nobility: “They lie on ivory beds, lolling on their couches” (Amos 6:4).

The impressive building in which the ivories were unearthed was devastated in a massive fire, apparently during the Babylonian destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BCE. The ivories were discovered smashed into tiny pieces, and burnt. During the excavation, as part of the wet-sieving project in Emek Tsurim National Park, no fewer than 1,500 fragments were found. Only after a unique restoration project led by conservator Orna Cohen and Ilan Naor from the Israel Antiquities Authority were the plaques restored, and the richness of the assemblage was revealed. “At the end of the process of joining and ‘fusing’ hundreds of the fragments, we were able to understand that the assemblage includes remnants of at least 12 small square plaques –  about 5 cm x 5 cm, at most 0.5 cm thick – which were originally inlaid in wooden furnishings,” Cohen and Naor said.

The ivories discovered were not the only prestigious items found at the site. A seal made of agate (a semi-precious stone) was also unearthed, as well as a seal impression carrying the name “Natan-Melech servant of the king,” jars that had held vanilla-spiced wine, decorated stone items, and wooden objects that were part of other large wooden furnishings.

Decorated ivories are the rarest and most outstanding finds in archaeological assemblages. Their prestige stems from the source of the ivory: microscopic testing by Harel Shohat of the University of Haifa revealed that they were made from elephant tusk.

“The prestige of ivory is also associated with the great skill required to work with it and create decorations,” Prof. Gadot and Dr. Shalev explain. “The assemblage of ivory discovered in the City of David was probably imported and originally made by artisans from Assyria. The ivories may have come to Jerusalem as a gift from Assyria to Jerusalem’s nobility. Following a comparison with complete objects that appear on wall plaques from the palace of the Assyrian King Sennacherib at Nineveh, we suggest that the ivory plaques from Jerusalem were originally inlaid in a couch-throne, and we may imagine that it had been situated on the second floor of the opulent structure.”

The decorations on most of the ivories were the same, consisting of frames incised with rosettes in the center of which was a stylized tree. Other plaques were adorned with lotus flowers and a geometric pattern. According to Dr. Ido Koch and Reli Avisar of Tel Aviv University, who studied the objects, the rosette and the tree were popular symbols in the Mesopotamian visual repertoire and other cultural centers. Ivory objects with similar decorations were discovered in the assemblage of ivories from Samaria and in more distant palaces, such as Nimrud and Khorsabad in the heart of the Assyrian Empire. The Judahite elite adopted these symbols during the time that Judah was under the rule of the Assyrian Empire (beginning in the second half of the eighth century BCE).

Interestingly, these three symbols appeared at that time in Judah as symbols of the kingdom both on stone items that adorned opulent buildings (decorated stone capitals discovered in Jerusalem at Armon HaNatziv, at Ramat Rachel and Nahal Rephaim, as well as seals used in the royal administration (rosette seals were used to stamp jars, marking their contents as belonging to the royal household). Even more interesting is that the animal and human mythological figures on ivory items discovered in Samaria, Nimrud, and other centers do not exist in the Jerusalem assemblage. “It’s possible that what we have here is evidence of a cultural choice by the Jerusalem elite as to which global symbols to adopt and which to reject,” the scholars say.

Eli Escusido, director of the Israel Antiquities Authority, said: “The excavations in the City of David never stop surprising us. This time, with the help of the delicate and inspiring work of conservators and researchers, we have been given a glimpse into the daily life of the people who lived here thousands of years ago. These discoveries breathe life into the ancient stones. The realization that the material culture of the social elites in Jerusalem in the First Temple period did not fall short of – and perhaps even exceeded – that of the other ruling centers in the Ancient Near East demonstrates the status and importance of Jerusalem at that time.”

A 500,000 year-old elephant tusk discovered in the southern coastal plain of Israel

The discovery of a complete tusk of a straight-tusked elephant (Palaeoloxodon antiquus) near Kibbutz Revadim in southern Israel sheds new light on the fascinating life of prehistoric humanity. Archaeologists, paleontologists, and conservators from the Israel Antiquities Authority, Tel Aviv University, and Ben Gurion University uncovered the 2.5-meter-long ancient tusk. It is not an illusion, as gigantic elephants roamed and grazed the prehistoric landscape of the coastal plain of Israel half a million years ago, as attested by this exceptionally well-preserved ancient elephant tusk.

At the end of an intensive two-week excavation named "Operation Elephant," specialists from the Israel Antiquities Authority, the Dan David Center for Human Evolution and Biohistory at Tel Aviv University, and Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, have exposed the ancient elephant tusk that was concealed in the ground for hundreds of thousands of years.

Dr. Eitan Mor, a biologist from Jerusalem, was the first to discover the fossil. He visited the area out of curiosity after reading about prehistoric elephants. Mor says, "To my surprise, I spotted something that looked like a large animal bone peeping out of the ground. When I looked closer, I realized it was 'the real thing,' so I rushed to report it to the Israel Antiquities Authority".

The Israel Antiquities Authority archaeologists arrived at the site following Mor's report and could hardly believe their eyes. "From our previous archaeological excavations at Revadim, we knew that the site was settled in the Late Lower Paleolithic period, as stone and flint tools, as well as animal bone, remains (including elephants) were retrieved but finding this half a million-year-old complete elephant tusk in such a good condition is something else! This is the largest complete fossil tusk ever found at a prehistoric site in Israel or the Near East," says Israel Antiquities Authority prehistorian Avi Levy, the excavation director.

Extracting the large tusk from the site sediments is a great challenge, even for experienced archaeologists and conservators. "The fossilized tusk is extremely fragile, and it is likely to disintegrate when exposed to the air and sunlight and human touch," explains Prof. Israel Hershkovitz from the Dan David Center for Human Evolution and Biohistory at Tel Aviv University. "The tusk was subjected to an initial conservation treatment when it was first discovered. We are excavating it within its archaeological context before transferring it to the Israel Antiquities Authority Conservation Laboratory, where it will be studied and conserved."

Elephants roamed our region a million and a half years ago, living alongside other large mammals, such as wild cattle, hippopotami, deer, wild boars, and wild horses. However, finding elephant remains at archaeological sites is uncommon, and this discovery is of great scientific interest. "The tusk belongs to the straight-tusked elephant species, known from only a few sites. The species appeared in our region about 800,000 years ago, and 400,000 years ago, it became extinct. It was a gigantic elephant, larger than the present-day African elephant," points out Israel Antiquities Authority Archaeo-zoologist Dr. Lee Perry-Gal.

"In the archaeological excavations that we conducted here several years ago, we found some elephant bones (skull parts, ribs, and teeth), and flint artifacts, such as flake tools, hand-axes, and chopping tools used in processing animal flesh," report Prof. Ofer Marder of Ben-Gurion University and Dr. Ianir Milevski, head of the Israel Antiquities Authority Prehistory Branch. "The discovery of the tusk, detached from the skull and the rest of the body, raises questions – Is the tusk the remains of a hunted elephant, or was it collected by the local prehistoric inhabitants? Did the tusk have social or spiritual significance?"

Ethnographic studies reveal that a large group of people carried out elephant hunting. "The concentration of the material remains—mostly stone tools— in the current excavation and at the entire site indicates that there was a substantial number of people at the site in one period of time and that elephants were hunted. In the hot, dry climate in our region, elephant's meat could not stay fresh for long, so it must have been consumed quickly by many people, probably as part of a communal event," said Prof. Israel Hershkovitz from the Dan David Center at Tel Aviv University, and Dr. Omry Barzilai from the Israel Antiquities Authority. There is an ongoing academic debate about the role of elephants in the Lower Paleolithic period – were they routinely hunted as a central component in the human diet, or were they hunted only on special occasions of social significance? We anticipate that the discovery of the new tusk in a clear archaeological context will shed light on this issue."

The new joint project of the Israel Antiquities Authority, Tel Aviv University, and Ben Gurion University is expected to answer critical questions regarding the life of prehistoric elephant hunters and their social behavior in a fascinating period of human history that reflects the establishment of humans at the top of the food chain.

According to the Director of the Israel Antiquities Authority, Mr. Eli Escusido, "The elephant tusk is an archaeological find of primary importance for the academic community and public interest. Consequently, once the conservation process is completed, we plan to exhibit the tusk to the public in our permanent exhibition hall at the new Jay and Jeanie Schottenstein National Campus for the Archaeology of Israel in Jerusalem.

The Finest 1,200-year-old Rural Estate Discovered in the Negev in Southern Israel

A 1,200-year-old luxurious rural estate, the first of its kind in the Negev, was exposed in the archaeological excavations carried out by the Israel Antiquities Authority and funded by the government through the Authority for the Development and Settlement of the Bedouin before the expansion of the town of Rahat. A surprise awaited the archaeologists in the building courtyard: a unique vaulted complex overlying a three-meter-deep rock-hewn water cistern.

The building, dating to the Early Islamic period (8th-9th centuries CE), was constructed around a central courtyard, and it comprised four wings with rooms to serve the needs of the residents. In one wing, a hall was paved with a marble and stone floor and walls decorated with frescoes (wall paintings on damp plaster). The extant small fresco fragments were finely colored in red, yellow, blue, and black. Other rooms in the building had plaster floors, and very large ovens—probably for cooking—were uncovered in different rooms. Amongst the small finds were fragments of delicate decorated glass serving dishes.

According to Oren Shmueli, Dr. Elena Kogan-Zehavi, and Dr. Noé D. Michael, the directors of the Israel Antiquities Authority excavations: “This is a unique discovery unknown until today. We were surprised to discover a complex of stone-built vaults at a depth of 5.5 m below the courtyard, standing at 2.5 m. The vaults were carefully constructed, and they probably led into additional underground complexes that have not yet been uncovered. Our biggest surprise was discovering an opening below the vaulted rooms that led into a deep rock-hewn cistern. The stone-built underground vaults were built as storerooms to store foodstuffs at reasonably cool temperatures. The supporting vaulted structures enabled the residents to move around underground safely and comfortably, protect themselves from the scorching summer heat, and drink cool water from the adjacent cistern. The clay oil lamp sherds retrieved on the vault floors were used for lighting the dark rooms, providing evidence of the residents’ activity here.

“The luxurious estate and the unique, impressive underground vaults are evidence of the owners’ means. Their high status and wealth allowed them to build a luxurious mansion that served as a residence and for entertaining; we can study the construction methods and architectural styles, as well as learn about daily life in the Negev at the beginning of Islamic rule”, say the excavation directors.  

According to Eli Escusido, Director of the Israel Antiquities Authority, “ The excavation in Rahat is the result of close cooperation between the Israel Antiquities Authority and the Authority for the Development and Settlement of the Bedouin. The luxurious estate was uncovered in an area between two ancient mosques, perhaps among the earliest ever discovered. By a good chance, and much to the local population’s interest and excitement, the Islamic building remains have been discovered in the area planned for expanding the town of Rahat. The Israel Antiquities Authority and the Authority for the Development and Settlement of the Bedouin are planning to conserve and exhibit the finds to the general public.”

A rare assemblage of knuckle bones for gaming and divination discovered in the ancient city of Maresha

A rare assemblage of "astragali"—animal knuckle bones used for gaming and divination—dating from the Hellenistic period (2300 years ago) was uncovered by Dr. Ian Stern in the Maresha-Bet Guvrin National Park in the Judean Shefelah in southern Israel. This vast assemblage was published recently for the first time in the British archaeological journal LEVANT by Dr. Lee Perry-Gal of the Israel Antiquities Authority, Prof. Adi Erlich of the Zinman Institute of Archaeology, University of Haifa, Dr. Avner Ecker of the Department of Land of Israel Studies in the University of Bar Ilan, and Dr. Ian Stern of the Nelson Glueck School of Archaeology, Hebrew Union College, Jerusalem. The assemblage was discovered several years ago in the vast underground cave below the ancient city of Maresha.

The "astragali"—knuckle bones of goats, sheep, and cattle—were used similarly to dice for gaming and ritual divination, mainly by women and children. Some of the knuckle bones were shaved down, perforated, or filled with lead, to be thrown more effectively as dice.

Tens of the dice bore Greek inscriptions: some were engraved with the names of gods associated in ancient times with human wishes and desires. Aphrodite, the goddess of fertility, love, and beauty, Eros, the god of love, the god Hermes, the goddess Hera, and Nike, the goddess of victory, appear amongst other gods. On other knuckle bones, game instructions and various game roles are engraved, such as "Robber," "Stop!", "You are burnt," etc.

According to Dr. Lee Perry-Gal, Israel Antiquities Authority zooarchaeologist and research fellow at the University of Haifa, "the assemblage of astragali from Maresha is unique, specifically the large quantity and good quality, and the many inscriptions. The assemblage shows that in ancient times of distress, as today, people sought help from external factors, in magic and spells, and the world of the unknown. In the past, men, especially women, struggled with an environment of uncertainty, death, childbirth, and health issues and tried to protect themselves with the help of magic. In addition, we know that astragali were used for games. It is noteworthy that we have examples of children buried with similar gaming dice. The cubes, which were a popular gaming activity, had a role in accompanying children to the next world, to be used there". Perry-Gal adds, "Since the astragali symbolize good luck, it was customary to inter them under the house threshold, in the hope that they will bring good luck and prosperity.

"It is of interest that these knuckle bones are often found next to ostraca (pottery sherds with writing inscribed or written in ink), which bore Aramaic texts, such as, 'Magical incantation,' or 'If you do so, this will happen to you., which demonstrates their cultic role.

According to Dr. Perry-Gal, "The Hellenistic city of Maresha was one of the period's melting-pots in the southern Levant. "Different populations and cultures lived side-by-side here as neighbors, all subordinate to the Hellenistic rule. Edomites, Phoenicians, Nabateans, and Jews lived here, and the different peoples and cultures influenced each other."

According to Eli Escusido, Director-General of the Israel Antiquities Authority, "This fascinating research sheds light on the life and customs in the ancient world and reminds us that people are regular people all over the world. They dream and hope, and notwithstanding the harshness of daily life, they find time for playing and leisure."  

Archaeological evidence for the location of the Roman ballista firing machines

The new computer-based research of Israel Antiquities Authority archaeologist Kfir Arbiv provided ballistic calculations from the 2000-year-old battleground including the intensity of the assault in the battles that led to the destruction of the Second Temple.

“The Temple was destroyed in 70 CE, after a four-month siege and an intensive battle led by the Roman general Titus to conquer the city and suppress the revolt initiated by the Jews four years earlier. The Romans had a well-trained massive army equipped with the best military innovations of their day. It was a ruthless war machine, “ says Israel Antiquities Authority researcher Kfir Arbiv.

Arbiv systematically recorded Roman military equipment retrieved in excavations in Jerusalem, many of which were found in the excavations he directed, together with Dr. Rina Avner, in the Russian Compound adjacent to the Jerusalem Municipality building. The Roman Arsenal exposed to date includes hundreds of different-sized ballista stones launched from sophisticated bolt-throwing machines to a distance of 100–400 m, small sling stones used by trained infantry, and catapult machines launched spearheads for a distance of 150–200 m. Spears, swords, and arrowheads, including heavy arrowheads that could penetrate armor.

“We know from the historical sources that the Roman army employed massive siege rams to batter the fortification walls and siege towers that reached the height of the walls, but these have not yet been found in Jerusalem,” says Amit Reem, director of Israel Antiquities Authority Jerusalem Region.

Arbiv’s research focused on the hundreds of ballista stones, and his analysis defined different sizes and weights. Some, directed against people, were launched against the walls to prevent the Jewish rebels from emerging above the walls. Other heavier ones were thrown fiercely against the walls to penetrate them.

According to Arbiv, “With the help of the computer, I located all the ballista exactly where they were found. I took into account the local topography and the location of the Second Temple-period city fortification walls, and I made ballistic calculations, including the launching angle and the throwing distance of the stones. All the data was compared to the renowned Jewish historian Josephus’ contemporary detailed descriptions of the battle, and the conquest and destruction of Jerusalem, in his book, ‘The History of the Jewish War against the Romans.”   

According to the research, some Roman army artillery machines were located in the center of the modern city of Jerusalem, in the Nahalat Hashiva area, nicknamed ‘Cats’ Square.’ The research also shows the probable pots where the Roman army penetrated the city for the first time. The Russian Compound excavations exposed part of the Third Wall, the third line of defense surrounding the city. An immense concentration of ballista stones was found at one point, some broken after use. It was evident that the Roman army concentrated their efforts here, and hundreds, if not thousands of ballista stones, were directed to this spot. “This is not surprising,” says Arbiv, “as whoever controls this spot dominates the whole area and the city's fate. This aligns with Josephus’ account that Titus commanded to penetrate the city from the northwestern side of the city wall.”

According to Eli Escusido, Director-General of the Israel Antiquities Authority, “the physical evidence of the huge resources employed by the Roman army in Jerusalem reflects the extremely harsh battles that eventually led to the destruction of the Second Temple. Notwithstanding the internal factions and the impossible odds, a small group of Jewish defenders withheld the Romans for a few months until the tragic destruction of the city. The use of up-to-date research methods reveals more and more about the fascinating history of Jerusalem.”

A 1500-year-old convent with a mosaic floor and inscriptions re-uncovered in a military zone near Shoham, Israel

Over the past month, dozens of soldiers re-uncovered a 1500-year-old nuns’ convent complex at Horbat Hani, in the low foothills east of Shoham, after a small area of the site located within a military zone was accidentally damaged by the army. The activity took place in the framework of the army educational project initiated by the Israel Antiquities Authority: ”The Nature Defense Forces Project: Officers Take Responsibility for the Environment.”

The Byzantine convent was first excavated twenty years ago by Dr. Uzi Dahari and Dr. Yehiel Zelinger of the Israel Antiquities Authority. It was subsequently covered up to protect it. It is now visible again, thanks to the project carried out with the soldiers.

According to Issy Kornfeld, Director of the excavation on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority, “Recently, a small part of the ancient ecclesiastical site was damaged in the course of army activities in the military zone. In this context, the Israel Antiquities Authority and the Nature Defense Forces program initiated an educational project, whereby this impressive site was re-opened and cleaned up under the guidance of the Israel Antiquities Authority Community Educational Centre.” Kornfeld continues, “In the original excavation, two buildings were uncovered, one of which was a church paved with a colorful mosaic depicting faunal and vegetal scenes, an entrance hall, the nuns’ dormitories, hermit cells, a tower with rooms, and a crypt, an underground burial complex. The other building included a kitchen, a refectory (dining hall), and an inn for pilgrims.”

There was evidence that the convent preserved a tradition related to women. Dr. Eitan Klein, an archaeologist at the Israel Antiquities Authority, proposed that the convent at Horbat Hani may have commemorated the burial place of the biblical Hannah, the wife of Elkanah. The latter was childless and gave birth to a son, the prophet Samuel after she vowed to dedicate him to the service of God.

According to Kornfeld, “As often in the ancient world, the convent was erected here, commemorating an ancient tradition, possibly of the burial place of Hannah, mother of the prophet Samuel.” The original excavation also uncovered a few female skeletons, possibly of women who sought to be buried in proximity to the sanctified figure of Hannah.

Guy Saly, director of the IDF Nature Defense Forces Project: ”The excavation is an example of officers taking responsibility for the environment and carrying out a meaningful activity, exposing and conserving the ancient site—archaeologists together with officers and soldiers who are the citizens of tomorrow—thus enabling us to experience and connect with our country’s heritage. The soldiers and the offices enjoyed the hands-on archaeological work, and we hope that the joint activities protecting the archaeological sites will continue in the future.”

Eli Escusido,  Director of the Israel Antiquities Authority, says, “The joint IAA initiative with the IDF Nature Defense Forces Project creates an opportunity for every soldier and army officer. The adoption of archaeological sites in army bases and military zones, and the creation of archaeological exhibitions in army bases, further consolidate the strong connection between the defense of the State of Israel and the protection of the ancient sites and our cultural inheritance.”

Spectacular rare coin depicting the moon goddess was discovered off the Carmel coast

An exceptionally well-preserved spectacular rare bronze coin was recently recovered from the seabed during an underwater archaeological survey conducted by the Israel Antiquities Authority off the Carmel coast at Haifa.
The coin was minted under the emperor Antoninus Pius (138–161 CE) in Alexandria, Egypt. The reverse depicts the zodiac sign Cancer beneath a portrait of the moon goddess Luna. The coin bears the date ‘Year eight,’ the eighth year of Antoninus Pius’s rule, or 144/145 CE. It belongs to a series of thirteen coins, twelve depicting the different signs of the zodiac and another the complete zodiac wheel.”

According to Israel Antiquities Authority Maritime Archaeology Unit director Jacob Sharvit, “This is the first time such a coin has been discovered off Israel’s coast, and it is a rare addition to the National Treasures collection. Israel’s Mediterranean shores and waters have yielded many archaeological sites and finds that attest to connections in antiquity between Mediterranean ports and the countries along it. These finds, which were lost at sea and disappeared from sight for hundreds and thousands of years, have been remarkably well preserved; some are extremely rare and their discovery completes parts of the historical puzzle of the country’s past.”  

The coin was discovered during a survey conducted by the Israel Antiquities Authority to locate, document, research, and preserve antiquities sites and ancient finds—cultural assets that are endangered by accelerated marine development.

According to Israel Antiquities Authority’s Director, Eli Escusido, “In the last decade, the State of Israel has changed its perception of the sea. Rather than marking the country’s border, the sea is now recognized as an integral part of its cultural heritage, in addition to security considerations and strategic and economic concerns. Israel’s territorial waters contain natural resources and cultural assets that must be explored and protected in light of different interests and potential development. The maritime survey off Haifa is part of this process. The rare coin recovered during the survey is a vivid reminder of the importance of the survey.” 

Interestingly, the ruler who minted the coin, Antoninus Pius, was a Roman emperor whole ruled between 138 and 161 CE. Unlike his predecessors, he was not a military man and never participated in battle. His reign was the quietest during the whole of the Roman Empire and marked the height of the period of ‘Roman peace’ (Pax Romana) throughout the empire. Antoninus had a different approach to running the Roman Empire, preferring to deal with any foreign crises through provincial governors; in fact, he never left Rome himself. He encouraged and initiated the construction of temples, theaters, and magnificent mausoleums and promoted science and philosophy.

During his rule, the empire’s relations with the Jews were greatly improved, the decrees of Hadrian were revoked, and Jews were allowed to practice circumcision. These steps led to amicable relations between the emperor and Rabbi Yehuda ha-Nasi. 

Magnificent 1700-year-old Mosaic Returns Home to Lod, Israel

Shelby White & Leon Levy Lod Mosaic Archaeological Center Inaugurated Today in Lod

New visitors’ center to display a breathtaking mosaic some 1,700 years old and among the world’s most beautiful.

A dedication ceremony was held today, June 27, 2022, in the presence of Ms. Shelby White, Lod Mayor Adv. Yair Revivo, Israel Antiquities Authority Director-General Eli Eskozido, and numerous dignitaries.  

After years on display in the world’s most important museums, including the Metropolitan Museum in New York, the Louvre in Paris, the Altes Museum in Berlin, the Hermitage in St. Petersburg, and others, the breathtaking Lod Mosaic – among the most beautiful discovered in Israel or anywhere in the world, and part of the floor of a late 3rd-early 4th-century villa -- has returned to Lod and will be on public display, beginning this summer.

Today (Monday, June 27th), the Lod Municipality and the Israel Antiquities Authority inaugurated the Shelby White & Leon Levy Lod Mosaic Archaeological Center in the presence of donor Ms. Shelby White and representatives of the Leon Levy Foundation. Also participating in the event were senior representatives of the Antiquities Authority, the Ministry of Tourism, the Lod Municipality, and other dignitaries.

The Donor, Ms. Shelby White: “From the moment Leon and I saw this historic mosaic, we knew how important it was for the town of Lod and the world, and what it would do to make Lod a cultural center. I am thrilled to have the opportunity to be part of the restoration of the mosaic and the creation of this museum. Being here is a dream come true.”

Lod Mayor, Adv. Leon Revivo: “Some 26 years since it was discovered in 1996, we have reached this great day as we inaugurate the Shelby White & Leon Levy Lod Mosaic Archaeological Center, a source of local pride and a link to the timeless history of Lod – among the oldest cities in the world! Our dream for this city – itself a mosaic of cultures -- is being realized today right before our eyes as we dedicate this most important museum, placing Lod on the world tourism map. We will enable people from around the country and the world to view this amazing treasure here in its original location, exactly where it was found. I want to thank Eli Eskozido, Director-General of the Antiquities Authority, his predecessors, Yehoshua (Shuka) Dorfman of Blessed Memory and Yisrael Hasson, and their staff for their tremendous dedication to this project, and for accompanying it throughout. And special thanks to our dear donor, Ms. Shelby White.”

Eli Escusido, Director-General of the Israel Antiquities Authority: “Today, after years of effort, the final piece of the Lod Mosaic project has been put in place, with the dedication of this visitors’ center. This is a thrilling milestone for the Antiquities Authority, whose experts uncovered, preserved, and promoted the public display of this amazing mosaic. I wish to thank the Lod Municipality and the driving force behind this project – our donor Shelby White -- without whom the Lod Mosaic wouldn’t have returned home. There’s no place else in Israel that displays and tells the story of such a wonderful mosaic in such a special way!”

About the Mosaic

The Lod Mosaic was discovered in 1996 by Israel Antiquities archaeologist Miriam Avissar of Blessed Memory during an archaeological dig prior to the expansion of He’Chalutz Street. It stems from the Roman period – the end of the 3rd century or the beginning of the 4th century CE. Due to the lack of funds to preserve and develop the site for display, the mosaic was re-covered at the conclusion of the excavations. Then, in 2009, the Antiquities Authority, through the generosity of the Leon Levy Foundation and Shelby White, acquired funding for its renewed exposure and preservation and returned it to the site as an archaeological center open to the general public.

Unusual in its quality, construction, contents, and state of preservation, the mosaic once served as the foyer floor of a villa in a wealthy Lod neighborhood from the Roman and Byzantine eras. It is about 17 meters long and about 9 meters wide and comprises colorful surfaces depicting fruits, mammals, birds, fish, flora, and even sailing vessels. Its design was influenced by that of North African mosaics. It’s interesting to note that, unlike other mosaics from that era, it includes no depictions of people. During the construction of the Mosaic Center, the Antiquities Authority discovered an additional colored mosaic that was part of the villa’s courtyard. It was also included in the Center as part of the visitors’ experience.

The mosaic is located in northeastern Lod, adjacent to the Ginton Junction, making it easily accessible from Ben-Gurion airport and two major highways – Route 1 between Tel Aviv and Jerusalem, and Route 6, linking northern and southern Israel. Its proximity to national traffic arteries will make it a national attraction, placing it on the tourism map along with several of the city’s other historical sites.

The mosaic will be on display for the general public, enabling visitors to see and experience it from various angles while teaching them about Lod’s history, archaeology, and mosaic preservation as they enjoy its unique beauty. The new visitors’ center will strengthen the connection of Lod residents to their city’s important historical legacy. This is a unique project, a world-class exhibit of an important find in its original location within a modern structure that honors and recalls the villa in which it once rested.

Luxurious Estate and Mosque, Among the Earliest Known (More Than 1200 Years Old), Uncovered in the City of Rahat in the Negev

The mosque – the second of its kind, joins another that was uncovered in 2019 in excavations of the Israel Antiquities Authority * The excavations in Rahat – initiated by the Authority for Development and Settlement of the Bedouin in the Negev, shed light on the beginnings of Islam in the Southern Levant.

 A luxurious estate and a rare rural mosque – among the earliest known worldwide (over 1200 years old) were recently discovered in the city of Rahat in the Negev. Large-scale archaeological excavations conducted by the Israel Antiquities Authority to facilitate the construction of a new neighborhood in Rahat, underwritten by the Authority for Development and Settlement of the Bedouin in the Negev, provide graphic details of the gradual transition from Christianity to Islam that took place in the seventh to ninth centuries CE.

The excavations, directed by Oren Shmueli, Dr. Elena Kogan-Zehavi, and Dr. Noe David Michael on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority, revealed buildings with Christian and Early Islamic characteristics close to one another. "We uncovered a farmhouse of the Byzantine period that apparently housed Christian farmers and included a fortified tower and rooms with strong walls surrounding a courtyard. On a nearby hilltop, we found estates constructed completely differently; these were built about a hundred years later, in the late seventh to ninth centuries – the Early Islamic period. The estate buildings, apparently built by Muslims, were constructed with lines of rooms next to large, open courtyards. Many of the clay-lined ovens in the rooms and courtyards were probably used for cooking food. The walls of these buildings were relatively thin and apparently supported mudbrick walls that have not survived." An early rural mosque, excavated in the vicinity in 2019 by Shahar Tzur and Dr. Jon Seligman on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority, and the first of its kind, provided proof of the inhabitants' identity. 

In the recent, renewed excavations, archaeologists were surprised to discover yet another rural mosque of the seventh – eighth centuries CE. The mosque includes a square room and a wall facing the direction of Mecca (qibla), the holy city of Islam. A niche shaped in a half-circle is located along the center of the wall pointing southwards (mihrab). These unique architectural features show that the building was used as a mosque. The mosque stands alone on the site and could have been used by several dozen Muslim worshippers, most likely local inhabitants, for prayers.

The mosque is about 400 meters south of a luxurious estate building constructed around a central courtyard. It includes halls with stone pavement, some paved with marble, and walls decorated with frescos painted in red and yellow. Remains of fine tableware and glass vessels, some illustrated with drawings of plants and animals, which were revealed in the building, manifest the wealth of its inhabitants.

According to researchers from the Israel Antiquities Authority, "The evidence from all of the excavation areas gathered so far: the dwellings, the houses of prayer, the ovens and utensils, sheds light on the beginnings of the historical process that took place in the northern Negev with the introduction of a new religion – the religion of Islam, and new rulership and culture in the region. These were gradually established, inheriting the earlier Byzantine government and the Christian faith that held sway over the land for hundreds of years.

According to the Director-General of the Israel Antiquities Authority, Eli Escusido, "The important largescale excavation in Rahat contributes to our knowledge, and that of the residents of the city of Rahat, who, together with the Authority for Development and Settlement of the Bedouin in the Negev, will be rewarded with the integration of unique finds in the development of the city – the ancient next to the modern – as in the words of King Solomon: "One generation comes and another passes away, and the earth abides forever."